Reporting Results Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Reporting Results - Essay Example This unique feature applicable to not-for-profit organizations have made the accounting industry defined them differently. A basic concept in the non-profit organizations is the net asset. This is asset with fewer liabilities. Such assets are also called funds. Instead of showing retained earnings or owners equity, the non-profit financial statements show net assets (Finkler, 2010). The source of their money is not through the sale of goods and service but through voluntary contributions from the public. They however provide welfare services that are not in anyway motivated by profit making. Their definition is, therefore, not similar to for profit organizations. They are exempted from tax paying mainly because they are of bigger benefit to the public but to another extend will limit the revenue that the council will be collecting especially if they expand acquiring properties that previously pay tax to the council. There have been rules set by GAAP that have enabled uniformity in the not-for profit organization in their reporting. Though there is still little difference in their reporting there is a much bigger consistency in their reporting. Some of these organizations are charity and service organization. They are organized as a not-for-profit corporation, a cooperative, or they exist informally. Others operate like a foundation, but they are more complex in its administration they hold more favorable tax and are restricted in the public charities they

Personal dichotomy Essay Example for Free

Personal dichotomy Essay Robert Louis Stevenson’s The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hide touches on many important themes, including identity and the role of reputation within society. On top of those themes, the author also uses his work to speak to an idea of â€Å"home† within the novel. Though this work does not include a typical literary representation of home as a developmental ground for young, aspiring successes, he does illustrate how home can be a highly safe and dangerous place all at the same time. Just as Jekyll and Hyde represent a personal dichotomy, home is shown as a place that can be multi-faceted. Because of the intimate nature of the relationships developed between a person and his or her home, that person can be manipulated by the safety of home. While it might seem like a place to barricade one’s self from the rest of the world, home can actually be the single force stripping individuals of their ability to function. In this particular work, home is a place where madness persists and it is essentially ground zero for all that is wrong with Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. In this way, the author is accepting some of the views on the role of home, asserting that even in a sea of positives, home can play a negative role, as well. In this book, home is most certainly a place of comfort and violence. The author challenges the assertion that home could be a place where people go just to get their own measure of comfort. While it is true that Dr. Jekyll retreats to his home to get away from much of the scrutiny surrounding him, the author is quick to point out that this experience takes away from Jekyll in a big way. During one portion of the book, suspicions are at an all-time high and people continue to visit Jekyll to figure out his situation. Both the police and concerned citizens have made their way into his home, and in the early part of the book, it is not a place of comfort. In this way, it can be said that the traditional idea of home is lost for the doctor during those moments. He has police officers going through his personal effects and turning his home upside down. He has individuals peering through his windows, providing him with little privacy or comfort of any kind. During this portion of the book, the traditional idea of home is absolutely smashed. Instead of being a refuge, it is a fish bowl where immense and intense pressure is put on the doctor over a period of months. The author does use this opportunity to show the importance of a traditional safe haven, though. As Jekyll is essentially ambushed in his home, he begins to long for the comfort and the privacy traditionally expected in that kind of setting. When Jekyll stops receiving visitors, he is reaching out for the comfort of his home. He grows very tired of constantly being harassed for various reasons, even if those reasons are legitimate. He locks the doors and makes home his refuge. He takes comfort in his work in the lab, but home is also a place of violence. He lives through a kind of unchangeable madness while in his home, constantly working on concoctions and hiding from the truth about who he is. This violence is finally culminated in his suicide, which not surprisingly happens right in the middle of his comfort zone. This use of violence within the home by the author is meant to show that the comfort provided by home is a slipper slope. As the traditional views hold, the ideal of home is one that is delicate. In one moment, home can provide a place for a person to get away from criticisms and attention. In another moment, it can be a place where madness and violence consumer a person’s life. Additionally, the author presents a picture of home as the breeding ground for many of the crazed acts of Mr. Hyde. In short, every minute that Jekyll spends in his home or lab is just another moment where the reader anticipates some terrible event. Through creative sequencing and skilled foreshadowing, the author makes it very clear that the home is an ominous place for Dr. Jekyll. Though he does use it as a refuge, the author makes it seem as if he is only picking the time of his next crazed act. The traditional views hold that home is a place where one develops his or her skills to move forward in the future. Most would say that this is a positive critique of what home is all about. That is not the picture of home that Stevenson paints, though. He does use the ideas of preparation and planning, but it is always for something negative. Much like Dr. Jekyll experiments with various things in his lab, home is a place where there is decisive scheming. In this way, it is much more planning than it is preparation. There is no real personal growth taking place for the doctor; he is only hiding from his identity and attempting to conceal his acts. The author’s decidedly negative view on the role of home in terms of preparation is an interesting point. Stevenson challenges the idea that a person can receive some sort of nurturing from home that would make he or she a better person overall. Instead, he paints home as something of an independent force. For people who have the innate ability to develop and grow, home can be a good place to do that. It does provide the type of repetitive environment where individuals can focus on continued good habits. The author, at least in this work, offers the opinion that home in itself is not enough to develop those who would otherwise not get development. Additionally, he paints this repetition as a bad thing in the case of Dr. Jekyll. The doctor gets into a terrible cycle where he continues to self destruct, time and again. Because home is a place where individuals are protected and where there is very little to balance out such acts, it creates an environment where people can fall into traps. Home is not nearly corrective enough in this story. With this view, Stevenson may be offering an argument that home is only a positive when the people inside the home are providing the correct amount of support. Because it can be so many things and go so many ways, home itself is truly not to blame. It is only a framework from which people are expected to work. The real blame must go on the individuals who use the home and on the people who should be providing the customary support that goes along with being at home. For Dr. Jekyll, home is his refuge, and it acts as a place that he cannot wait to return to. As the reader clearly sees in this book, the first thing that Dr. Jekyll always does after one of Mr. Hyde’s acts is that he comes back home. There are dangerous out on the streets and he could potentially get himself into trouble, but when the doctor comes back home, he has the ability to cover things up, clean behind his tracks, and turn his life into something â€Å"normal† yet again. While many things change for Jekyll over the course of the book, including his professional reputation, his personal relationships, and his ability to manage his personalities, home is something that remains constant. It is a strong place for him to come and truly dedicate his time to his craft. Despite this somewhat positive view of what home is supposed to mean, the book indicates that Jekyll feels incredibly trapped by this situation. He is actually forced to feel like a stranger within his own home, and he comes to resent it after a short while. For the longest time, Jekyll looks forward to coming home because it provides him with safety after some of the acts of Mr. Hyde. This changes as the book moves along, though. No longer is there real excitement about coming home. Instead, he comes because that is the only place that he can go. Home becomes a restrictive force, and all that is positive about it is thrown out of the window. This is the author’s critique on the place of home. In one instance, it can be a place that people need, and it can provide the framework for success. It does not take much for home to take on a negative connotation, though. Just as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde can be switched on and off in a split second, a positive view of home and a negative one can come about very quickly. The traditional view of home as a dichotomy offers the opinion that different pictures of home can be experienced by different people. For some people, home is a good thing, while it is resented by other people. Stevenson complicates this by adding an element of personal indecision on the role of home. Dr. Jekyll experiences all of these emotions within himself. His entire life is dedicated to his work in the lab and the things he has going on at home. That is truly a place of great joy and utter accomplishment for him. Later, it completely switches for him and becomes a place of death, quite literally. Not only does he kill himself right in the middle of the floor at his home, but he also sees his professional life die right in that home. People are constantly peering in, wanting to take a look at the strange and complicated Dr. Jekyll. His reputation dies and any respect that he worked so hard for in that lab goes away along with it. It is no coincidence that the author chooses the doctor’s home as the place where all of this would take place. This speaks loudly about the importance of home to a person’s development. Whether positive or negative, home does play a substantial role in shaping what a person will become. In the case of Dr. Jekyll, home is a roller coaster and home has seen the full range of experiences that he has gone through. Home, in the traditional sense, is a mostly positive place with some negative possibilities. Most authors take the view that home provides something for a person until a time comes when home is a limiting force. In this work, home is something a little bit different. Both a refuge and a place of imprisonment for Dr. Jekyll, home goes through quite a transition as the work goes along. In the end, home is a place of horrible tragedy and death, and it serves as the fitting setting of a man’s twisted, double life.

Analysis of Land Consumption Rates

Analysis of Land Consumption Rates CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Studies have shown that there remains only few landscapes on the Earth that are still in there natural state. Due to anthropogenic activities, the Earth surface is being significantly altered in some manner and mans presence on the Earth and his use of land has had a profound effect upon the natural environment thus resulting into an observable pattern in the land use/land cover over time. The land use/land cover pattern of a region is an outcome of natural and socio economic factors and their utilization by man in time and space. Land is becoming a scarce resource due to immense agricultural and demographic pressure. Hence, information on land use / land cover and possibilities for their optimal use is essential for the selection, planning and implementation of land use schemes to meet the increasing demands for basic human needs and welfare. This information also assists in monitoring the dynamics of land use resulting out of changing demands of increasing population. Land use and land cover change has become a central component in current strategies for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes. The advancement in the concept of vegetation mapping has greatly increased research on land use land cover change thus providing an accurate evaluation of the spread and health of the worlds forest, grassland, and agricultural resources has become an important priority. Viewing the Earth from space is now crucial to the understanding of the influence of mans activities on his natural resource base over time. In situations of rapid and often unrecorded land use change, observations of the earth from space provide objective information of human utilization of the landscape. Over the past years, data from Earth sensing satellites has become vital in mapping the Earths features and infrastructures, managing natural resources and studying environmental change. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) are now providing new tools for advanced ecosystem management. The collection of remotely sensed data facilitates the synoptic analyses of Earth system function, patterning, and change at local, regional and global scales over time; such data also provide an important link between intensive, localized ecological research and regional, national and international conservation and management of biological diversity (Wilkie and Finn, 1996). Therefore, attempt will be made in this study to map out the status of land use land cover of Ilorin between 1972 and 2001 with a view to detecting the land consumption rate and the changes that has taken place in this status particularly in the built-up land so as to predict possible changes that might take place in this status in the next 14 years using both Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing data. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Ilorin, the Kwara State, capital has witnessed remarkable expansion, growth and developmental activities such as building, road construction, deforestation and many other anthropogenic activities since its inception in 1967 just like many other state capitals in Nigeria. This has therefore resulted in increased land consumption and a modification and alterations in the status of her land use land cover over time without any detailed and comprehensive attempt (as provided by a Remote Sensing data and GIS) to evaluate this status as it changes over time with a view to detecting the land consumption rate and also make attempt to predict same and the possible changes that may occur in this status so that planners can have a basic tool for planning. It is therefore necessary for a study such as this to be carried out if Ilorin will avoid the associated problems of a growing and expanding city like many others in the world. 1.3 Justification for the Study Attempt has been made to document the growth of Ilorin in the past but that from an aerial photography (Olorunfemi, 1983). In recent times, the dynamics of Land use Land cover and particularly settlement expansion in the area requires a more powerful and sophisticated system such as GIS and Remote Sensing data which provides a general extensive synoptic coverage of large areas than area photography 1.4 Aim and Objectives 1.4.1 Aim The aim of this study is to produce a land use land cover map of Ilorin at different epochs in order to detect the changes that have taken place particularly in the built-up land and subsequently predict likely changes that might take place in the same over a given period. 1.4.2 Objectives The following specific objectives will be pursued in order to achieve the aim above. To create a land use land cover classification scheme To determine the trend, nature, rate, location and magnitude of land use land cover change. To forecast the future pattern of land use land cover in the area. To generate data on land consumption rate and land absorption coefficient  since more emphasis is placed on built-up land. To evaluate the socio economic implications of predicted change. 1.5 The Study Area The study area (Ilorin) is the capital of Kwara State. It is located on latitude 80 31 N and 40 35 E with an Area of about 100km square (Kwara State Diary1997). Being situated in the transitional zone; between the forest and the savanna region of Nigeria i.e. the North and the West coastal region, it therefore serves as a melting point between the northern and southern culture.(Oyebanji, 1993). Her geology consists of pre-Cambrian basement complex with an elevation which ranges between 273m to 333m in the West and 200m to 364m in the East. The landscape of the region (Ilorin) is relatively flat, this means it is located on a plain and is crested by two large rivers, the river Asa and Oyun which flows in North South direction divides the plain into two; Western and Eastern part (Oyebanji, 1993). The climate is humid tropical type and is characterized by wet and dry seasons (Ilorin Atlas 1981). The wet season begins towards the end of March and ends in October. A dry season in the town begins with the onset of tropical continental air mass commonly referred to as harmattan. This wind is usually predominant between the months of November and February (Olaniran 2002). The temperature is uniformly high throughout the year. The mean monthly temperature of the town for the period of 1991 2000 varies between 250 C and 29.50 C with the month of March having about 300C. Ilorin falls into the southern savanna zone. This zone is a transition between the high forest in the southern part of the country and the far North with woodland properties. (Osoba, 1980). Her vegetation is characterized by scattered tall tree shrubs of between the height of ten and twelve feet. Oyegun in 1993 described the vegetation to be predominantly covered by derived savannah found in East and West and are noted for their dry lowland rainforest vegetal cover. As noted by Oyegun in 1983, Ilorin is one of the fastest growing urban centers in Nigeria. Her rate of population growth is much higher than for other cities in the country (Oyegun, 1983). Ilorin city has grown in both population and areal extent at a fast pace since 1967 (Oyegun, 1983). The Enplan group (1977) puts the population at 400,000 which made it then the sixth largest town in Nigeria. The town had a population of 40, 990 in 1952 and 208, 546 in 1963 and was estimated as 474, 835 in 1982 (Oyegun, 1983). In 1984, the population was 480, 000 (Oyegun, 1985). This trend in population growth rate shows a rapid growth in population. The growth rate between 1952 and 1963 according to Oyebanji, 1983 is put at 16.0 which is higher than other cities in the country. The population as estimated by the 1991 population census was put at 570,000. 1.6 Definition of Terms (i) Remote sensing: Can be defined as any process whereby information is gathered about an object, area or phenomenon without being in contact with it. Given this rather general definition, the term has come to be associated more specifically with the gauging of interactions between earth surface materials and electromagnetic energy. (Idrisi 32 guide to GIS and Image processing, volume 1). (ii) Geographic Information system: A computer assisted system for the acquisition, storage, analysis and display of geographic data (Idrisi 32 guide to GIS and Image processing, volume 1). (iii) Land use: This is the manner in which human beings employ the land and its resources. (iv) Land cover: Implies the physical or natural state of the Eaths surface. CHAPTER TWO 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW According to Meyer, 1999 every parcel of land on the Earths surface is unique in the cover it possesses. Land use and land cover are distinct yet closely linked characteristics of the Earths surface. The use to which we put land could be grazing, agriculture, urban development, logging, and mining among many others. While land cover categories could be cropland, forest, wetland, pasture, roads, urban areas among others. The term land cover originally referred to the kind and state of vegetation, such as forest or grass cover but it has broadened in subsequent usage to include other things such as human structures, soil type, biodiversity, surface and ground water (Meyer, 1995). Land use affects land cover and changes in land cover affect land use. A change in either however is not necessarily the product of the other. Changes in land cover by land use do not necessarily imply degradation of the land. However, many shifting land use patterns driven by a variety of social causes, result in land cover changes that affects biodiversity, water and radiation budgets, trace gas emissions and other processes that come together to affect climate and biosphere (Riebsame, Meyer, and Turner, 1994). Land cover can be altered by forces other than anthropogenic. Natural events such as weather, flooding, fire, climate fluctuations, and ecosystem dynamics may also initiate modifications upon land cover. Globally, land cover today is altered principally by direct human use: by agriculture and livestock raising, forest harvesting and management and urban and suburban construction and development. There are also incidental impacts on land cover from other human activities such as forest and lakes damaged by acid rain from fossil fuel combustion and crops near cities damaged by tropospheric ozone resulting from automobile exhaust (Meyer, 1995). Hence, in order to use land optimally, it is not only necessary to have the information on existing land use land cover but also the capability to monitor the dynamics of land use resulting out of both changing demands of increasing population and forces of nature acting to shape the landscape. Conventional ground methods of land use mapping are labor intensive, time consuming and are done relatively infrequently. These maps soon become outdated with the passage of time, particularly in a rapid changing environment. In fact according to Olorunfemi (1983), monitoring changes and time series analysis is quite difficult with traditional method of surveying. In recent years, satellite remote sensing techniques have been developed, which have proved to be of immense value for preparing accurate land use land cover maps and monitoring changes at regular intervals of time. In case of inaccessible region, this technique is perhaps the only method of obtaining the required data on a cost and time effective basis. A remote sensing device records response which is based on many characteristics of the land surface, including natural and artificial cover. An interpreter uses the element of tone, texture, pattern, shape, size, shadow, site and association to derive information about land cover. The generation of remotely sensed data/images by various types of sensor flown aboard different platforms at varying heights above the terrain and at different times of the day and the year does not lead to a simple classification system. It is often believed that no single classification could be used with all types of imagery and all scales. To date, the most successful attempt in developing a general purpose classification scheme compatible with remote sensing data has been by Anderson et al which is also referred to as USGS classification scheme. Other classification schemes available for use with remotely sensed data are basically modification of the above classification scheme. Ever since the launch of the first remote sensing satellite (Landsat-1) in 1972, land use land cover studies were carried out on different scales for different users. For instance, waste land mapping of India was carried out on 1:1 million scales by NRSA using 1980 82 landsat multi spectral scanner data. About 16.2% of waste lands were estimated based on the study. Xiaomei Y, and Rong Qing L.Q.Y in 1999 noted that information about change is necessary for updating land cover maps and the management of natural resources. The information may be obtained by visiting sites on the ground and or extracting it from remotely sensed data. Change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times (Singh, 1989). Change detection is an important process in monitoring and managing natural resources and urban development because it provides quantitative analysis of the spatial distribution of the population of interest. Macleod and Congation (1998) list four aspects of change detection which are important when monitoring natural resources: i. Detecting the changes that have occurred ii. Identifying the nature of the change iii. Measuring the area extent of the change iv. Assessing the spatial pattern of the change The basis of using remote sensing data for change detection is that changes in land cover result in changes in radiance values which can be remotely sensed. Techniques to perform change detection with satellite imagery have become numerous as a result of increasing versatility in manipulating digital data and increasing computer power. A wide variety of digital change detection techniques have been developed over the last two decades. Singh (1989) and Coppin Bauer (1996) summarize eleven different change detection algorithms that were found to be documented in the literature by 1995. These include: 1. Mono-temporal change delineation. 2. Delta or post classification comparisons. 3. Multidimensional temporal feature space analysis. 4. Composite analysis. 5. Image differencing. 6. Multitemporal linear data transformation. 7. Change vector analysis. 8. Image regression. 9. Multitemporal biomass index 10. Background subtraction. 11. Image ratioing In some instances, land use land cover change may result in environmental, social and economic impacts of greater damage than benefit to the area (Moshen A, 1999). Therefore data on land use change are of great importance to planners in monitoring the consequences of land use change on the area. Such data are of value to resources management and agencies that plan and assess land use patterns and in modeling and predicting future changes. Shosheng and Kutiel (1994) investigated the advantages of remote sensing techniques in relation to field surveys in providing a regional description of vegetation cover. The results of their research were used to produce four vegetation cover maps that provided new information on spatial and temporal distributions of vegetation in this area and allowed regional quantitative assessment of the vegetation cover. Arvind C. Pandy and M. S. Nathawat (2006) carried out a study on land use land cover mapping of Panchkula, Ambala and Yamunanger districts, Hangana State in India. They observed that the heterogeneous climate and physiographic conditions in these districts has resulted in the development of different land use land cover in these districts, an evaluation by digital analysis of satellite data indicates that majority of areas in these districts are used for agricultural purpose. The hilly regions exhibit fair development of reserved forests. It is inferred that land use land cover pattern in the area are generally controlled by agro climatic conditions, ground water potential and a host of other factors. It has been noted over time through series of studies that Landsat Thematic Mapper is adequate for general extensive synoptic coverage of large areas. As a result, this reduces the need for expensive and time consuming ground surveys conducted for validation of data. Generally, satellite imagery is able to provide more frequent data collection on a regular basis unlike aerial photographs which although may provide more geometrically accurate maps, is limited in respect to its extent of coverage and expensive; which means, it is not often used. In 1985, the U.S Geological Survey carried out a research program to produce 1:250,000 scale land cover maps for Alaska using Landsat MSS data (Fitz Patrick et al, 1987).The State of Maryland Health Resources Planning Commission also used Landsat TM data to create a land cover data set for inclusion in their Maryland Geographic Information (MAGI) database. All seven TM bands were used to produce a 21 class land cover map (EOSAT 1992). Also, in 1992, the Georgia Department of Natural Resources completed mapping the entire State of Georgia to identify and quantify wetlands and other land cover types using Landsat Thematic Mapper â„ ¢ data (ERDAS, 1992). The State of southern Carolina Lands Resources Conservation Commission developed a detailed land cover map composed of 19 classes from TM data (EOSAT, 1994). This mapping effort employed multi-temporal imagery as well as multi-spectral data during classification. An analysis of land use and land cover changes using the combination of MSS Landsat and land use map of Indonesia (Dimyati, 1995) reveals that land use land cover change were evaluated by using remote sensing to calculate the index of changes which was done by the superimposition of land use land cover images of 1972, 1984 and land use maps of 1990. This was done to analyze the pattern of change in the area, which was rather difficult with the traditional method of surveying as noted by Olorunfemi in 1983 when he was using aerial photographic approach to monitor urban land use in developing countries with Ilorin in Nigeria as the case study. Daniel et al, 2002 in their comparison of land use land cover change detection methods, made use of 5 methods viz; traditional post classification cross tabulation, cross correlation analysis, neural networks, knowledge based expert systems, and image segmentation and object oriented classification. A combination of direct T1 and T2 change detection as well as post classification analysis was employed. Nine land use land cover classes were selected for analysis. They observed that there are merits to each of the five methods examined, and that, at the point of their research, no single approach can solve the land use change detection problem. Also, Adeniyi and Omojola, (1999) in their land use land cover change evaluation in Sokoto Rima Basin of North Western Nigeria based on Archival Remote Sensing and GIS techniques, used aerial photographs, Landsat MSS, SPOT XS/Panchromatic image Transparency and Topographic map sheets to study changes in the two dams (Sokoto and Guronyo) between 1962 and 1986. The work revealed that land use land cover of both areas was unchanged before the construction while settlement alone covered most part of the area. However, during the post dam era, land use /land cover classes changed but with settlement still remaining the largest. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The procedure adopted in this research work forms the basis for deriving statistics of land use dynamics and subsequently in the overall, the findings. 3.2 Data Acquired and Source For the study, Landsat satellite images of Kwara State were acquired for three Epochs; 1972, 1986 and 2001. Both 1972 and 1986 were obtained from Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) an Earth Science Data Interface, while that of 2001 was obtained from National Space Research and Development Agency in Abuja (NASRDA). 0n both 2001 and 1986 images, a notable feature can be observed which is the Asa dam which was not yet constructed as of 1972. It is also important to state that Ilorin and its environs which were carved out using the local government boundary map and Nigerian Administrative map was also obtained from NASRDA. These were brought to Universal Transverse Marcator projection in zone 31. Table 3.1 Data Source 3.2.1 Geo-referencing Properties of the Images The geo-referencing properties of both 1986 2001 are the same while image thinning was applied to the 1972 imagery which has a resolution of 80m using a factor of two to modify its properties and resolution to conform to the other two has given below; Data type: rgb8 File type: binary Columns: 535 Rows: 552 Referencing system: utm-31 Reference units: m Unit distance: 1 Minimum X: 657046.848948 Maximum X: 687541.848948 Minimum Y: 921714.403281 Maximum Y: 953178.403281 Min Value: 0 Max Value: 215 Display Minimum: 0 Display Maximum: 215 Image thinning was carried out through contract; contract generalizes an image by reducing the number of rows and columns while simultaneously decreasing the cell resolution. Contraction may take place by pixel thinning or pixel aggregation with the contracting factors in X and Y being independently defined. With pixel thinning, every nth pixel is kept while the remaining is thrown away. 3.3 Software Used Basically, five software were used for this project viz; (a) ArcView 3.2a this was used for displaying and subsequent processing and enhancement of the image. It was also used for the carving out of Ilorin region from the whole Kwara State imagery using both the admin and local government maps. (b) ArcGIS This was also used to compliment the display and processing of the data (c) Idrisi32 This was used for the development of land use land cover classes and subsequently for change detection analysis of the study area. (d) Microsoft word was used basically for the presentation of the research. (e) Microsoft Excel was used in producing the bar graph. 3.4 Development of a Classification Scheme Based on the priori knowledge of the study area for over 20 years and a brief reconnaissance survey with additional information from previous research in the study area, a classification scheme was developed for the study area after Anderson et al (1967). The classification scheme developed gives a rather broad classification where the land use land cover was identified by a single digit. Table 3.2 Land use land cover classification scheme The classification scheme given in table 3.2 is a modification of Andersons in 1967 The definition of waste land as used in this research work denotes land without scrub, sandy areas, dry grasses, rocky areas and other human induced barren lands. 3.5 Limitation(s) in the Study There was a major limitation as a result of resolution difference. Landsat image of 1972 was acquired with the multi spectral scanner (MSS) which has a spatial resolution of 80 meters, whilst the images of 1986 and 2001 were acquired with Thematic Mapper â„ ¢ and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) respectively. These both have a spatial resolution of 30 meters. Although this limitation was corrected for through image thinning of the 1972, it still prevented its use for projecting into the future so as to have a consistent result. Apart from this, it produced an arbitrary classification of water body for the 1972 classification. 3.6 Methods of Data Analysis Six main methods of data analysis were adopted in this study. (i) Calculation of the Area in hectares of the resulting land use/land cover types for each study year and subsequently comparing the results. (ii) Markov Chain and Cellular Automata Analysis for predicting change (iii) Overlay Operations (iv) Image thinning (v) Maximum Likelihood Classification (vi) Land Consumption Rate and Absorption Coefficient The fist three methods above were used for identifying change in the land use types. Therefore, they have been combined in this study. The comparison of the land use land cover statistics assisted in identifying the percentage change, trend and rate of change between 1972 and 2001. In achieving this, the first task was to develop a table showing the area in hectares and the percentage change for each year (1972, 1986 and 2001) measured against each land use land cover type. Percentage change to determine the trend of change can then be calculated by dividing observed change by sum of changes multiplied by 100 (trend) percentage change = observed change * 100 Sum of change In obtaining annual rate of change, the percentage change is divided by 100 and multiplied by the number of study year 1972 1986 (14years) 1986 2001 (15years) Going by the second method (Markov Chain Analysis and Cellular Automata Analysis), Markov Chain Analysis is a convenient tool for modeling land use change when changes and processes in the landscape are difficult to describe. A Markovian process is one in which the future state of a system can be modeled purely on the basis of the immediately preceding state. Markovian chain analysis will describe land use change from one period to another and use this as the basis to project future changes. This is achieved by developing a transition probability matrix of land use change from time one to time two, which shows the nature of change while still serving as the basis for projecting to a later time period .The transition probability may be accurate on a per category basis, but there is no knowledge of the spatial distribution of occurrences within each land use category. Hence, Cellular Automata (CA) was used to add spatial character to the model. CA_Markov uses the output from the Markov Chain Analysis particularly Transition Area file to apply a contiguity filter to grow out land use from time two to a later time period. In essence, the CA will develop a spatially explicit weighting more heavily areas that proximate to existing land uses. This will ensure that land use change occurs proximate to existing like land use classes, and not wholly random. Overlay operations which is the last method of the three, identifies the actual location and magnitude of change although this was limited to the built-up land. Boolean logic was applied to the result through the reclass module of idrisi32 which assisted in mapping out separately areas of change for which magnitude was later calculated for. The Land consumption rate and absorption coefficient formula are give below; L.C.R = A P A = areal extent of the city in hectares P = population L.A.C = A2 A1 P2 P1 A1 and A2 are the areal extents (in hectares) for the early and later years, and P1 and P2 are population figure for the early and later years respectively (Yeates and Garner, 1976) L.C.R = A measure of compactness which indicates a progressive spatial expansion of a city. L.A.C = A measure of change in consumption of new urban land by each unit increase in urban population Both the 2001 and 2015 population figures were estimated from the 1991 and the estimated 2001 population figures of Ilorin respectively using the recommended National Population Commission (NPC) 2.1% growth rate as obtained from the 1963/1991 censuses. The first task to estimating the population figures was to multiply the growth rate by the census figures of Ilorin in both years (1991, 2001) while subsequently dividing same by 100. The result was then multiplied by the number of years being projected for, the result of which was then added to the base year population (1991, 2001). This is represented in the formula below; n = r/100 * Po (1) Pn = Po + (n * t) (2) Pn = estimated population (2001, 2015) Po = base year population (1991 2001 population figure) r = growth rate (2.1%) n = annual population growth t = number of years projecting for *The formula given for the population estimate was developed by the researcher In evaluating the socio economic implications of change, the effect of observed changes in the land use and land cover between 1972 and 2001 were used as major criteria. CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS 4.0 Introduction The objective of this study forms the basis of all the analysis carried out in this chapter. The results are presented inform of maps, charts and statistical tables. They include the static, change and projected land use land cover of each class. 4.1 Land Use Land Cover Distribution The static land use land cover distribution for each study year as derived from the maps are presented in the table below LANDUSE/LAND COVER CATEGORIES 1972 1986 2001 AREA (Ha.) AREA (%)

Bilingual Education in American Schools Essay -- Argumentative Persuas

Suppose your child has been moved to China. Your child does not speak Chinese; is it the school system's responsibility to teach your child in English? Or should your child be expected to learn in the country's language and perhaps get extra help on the side? Why should a school district spend money on bilingual classes rather than on reducing class sizes? In the United States of America we have become a large melting pot of ethnic and cultural peoples. Along with these peoples have come many different languages and alphabets. However the US has been seen as a mostly English speaking country. Yet many of this country's newcomers do not speak English. Adults and children alike come into the US speaking and writing only their native tongue. This poses a huge gap in communication. If the adults are unable to teach their children English, then it becomes the school districts' responsibility. However to make learning easier on the child, many school districts choose to teach the child in their native language, while they receive English lessons on the side. The debate now is whether there is sufficient studies proving the effectiveness of Bilingual education and the need to continue it in many states. In 1998 Los Angeles County passed Proposition 227 to create bilingual education programs. (LA Times October 23.1998) Because of the passing of this bill many students were left in limbo waiting for teaching plans to be made. As well as the budget to be reformed to accommodate the extra expenses of a bilingual education programs, books, and to hire the proper teachers and aids to assists in the new bilingual classes. Often there are only a few children in a classroom being taught in their native language whil... ...etter spent in helping all children attending schools. Teachers who want to teach should not be discriminated against for their English only abilities and all the students in a classroom need to be given an equal chance to succeed. Works Cited: "A Boomtown Of Education", L.A Times, May, 25th 1998 (Front Page) http://www.onenation.org/0598/052598c.html A Mass News Exclusive "Bilingual Education in Massachusetts": A Troubled Program. http://www.massnews.com/sch13.htm "Hundreds Wait for Bilingual education", L.A Times Oct. 23, 1998 http://www-rcf.usc.edu/~cmmr/NEWS/L.A.Times_Oct23.html Padilla, Amado.   "Bilingual Education: Issues and Perspectives." From Community to College, New York, St. Martin's Press 1992 PBS Online Forum "Language and Education" Sep. 29, 1997 http://www.pbs.org/newshour/forum/september97/bilingual_9-29.html

Pardoners Tale/ Beowulf Essay

The comprehension of literary history gives us insight into the past, recognition of historical events and corruption written into the works of those who were present. By including societal behaviors, political tensions, and common folklore, authors have indirectly provided the reader with a broader and deeper understanding of the literature, as well as the period in which it was written. Besides insight into society as a whole, literary history has provided future writers with models of poetic device, style and content influencing literary works in todays present. Literary history is a vehicle to understanding the past and plays a major role in its influence on literature up to and including the present day. Knowledge of historical literature gives us insight into the traditions and societal conventions of the time in which the piece was written. One outstanding example comes from Anglo-Saxon times. Beowulf is a literary work which enables a reader to glimpse not only the societal customs but into the savage and seemingly uncontrollable environment of the first century. In the fight between Grendel and Beowulf it appears as though Grendel is represented by the degraded form of human life attempting to gain power through violence, in his attempt to overthrow Hrothgar and take control of Heorot, he is fatally wounded by Beowulf. The Beowulf poet describes Grendel and Beowulf as â€Å"Both .. enraged, fury filled, the two who meant to control the hall. † (Beowulf 36). The fight over control of the hall, could be seen as a representation of the struggle between good and evil, or perhaps the control of the king, over uncontrollable people. Taking into account the explanation of Grendel, a reader may also reason that the dragon symbolizes a threat from outside the human realm. One notes that the dragon is not given the humanistic qualities of Grendel, he has no kin and appears to have no mortal thoughts. Due to his lack of humanistic characteristics, the reader may believe that the dragon is less representative of a human threat such as a human-like enemy. One begins to understand a little from the Anglo-Saxon period as well as some of the pagan values from reading this piece of work by the Beowulf poet. Another, much later example supporting historical representation in a literary work, in this case religious tension, is evident in Chaucer’s The Pardoner’s Tale. The Pardoner’s Tale was written in a time when the â€Å"Age of Faith was passing into an age of skepticism and all authority was being called into question by the English public. † The church was corrupt at a time when, if anything, it should have been protecting its followers. It was making no attempt to secure faith through true belief but instead portraying salvation and redemption as an item to bought and sold by the church. In Chaucer’s description of the Pardoner’s feelings about being the absolver of sins he writes â€Å"For myn entente is not but for to winne [for my intent is not to but make money]† (Chaucer 67) . Chaucer’s use of satire and his description of the Pardoner’s morals is a deep reflection of the religious and corrupt tensions of this period in history. Literary history generates great interest in the modern world and it is also imperative that we understand it so that we are aware of its vast influence all over the world. It engulfs whole historical periods and allows the audience a glimpse into the life and times of the author. Through the reading of Beowulf a reader is able to catch a glimpse of the Pagan societal culture. In Chaucer’s poem The Pardoners Tale one can see the shift in faith from the devout, to the skeptic. Through his satire, the audience is able to grasp the idea that the world was changing. Following the line of literary history, one observes the influences of one writing style over another and can understand that it plays an important role in understanding our present world. It explains major literary traditions, movements and authors of a country and region, it also allows the audience a porthole in which to experience the past and use it to influence future literary works.

Meaning and History of the Surname Callaghan

Meaning and History of the Surname Callaghan The Callaghan surname is derived from the Gaelic name Ó Ceallagchin, meaning descendant of Ceallanchn. The O prefix indicates descendant of, while Ceallagchin is a diminutive of Ceallach, a given name of uncertain origin. The most widely accepted meaning is bright-headed, from the Gaelic cen, meaning head and lach, meaning light Other possibilities include: lover of churches, from ceall, meaning churchfrom the Old Irish ceallach, meaning contention, strifeFrom ciallach, meaning prudent, judicious Surname Origin:  Irish Alternate Surname Spellings:  OCALLAGHAN, CALLAHAN, CALLACHAN, CEALLACHAIN, CELLACHAN, CEALLAGHAN, CELLACHAIN, OCALLAGHAN, OCALLAHAN, KEELAGHAN Famous People with the Surname CALLAGHAN Fr Richard Callaghan - 18th century Irish Jesuit educationalistEdmund Bailey OCallaghan - Irish doctor and journalistJohn Cornelius OCallaghan - Irish historian and writerSir Francis OCallaghan - Irish civil engineerJames Callaghan  - UK Prime Minister, 1976–79Dr. Patrick Pat  OCallaghan - considered one of Irelands greatest athletes; Olympic gold medalist Where is the CALLAGHAN  Surname Most Commonly Found? Forebears identifies the  Callaghan  surname as being most common in Ireland, where it ranks 112th in the nation. It is also fairly common in Northern Ireland (ranked 433rd), Scotland (541st), Australia (593rd), Wales (653rd), New Zealand (657th) and England (658th). Within Ireland, Callaghan is the most common in Cork. The OCallaghan variant ranks just behind Callaghan in Ireland, coming in as number 113. WorldNames PublicProfiler identifies the Callaghan surname as more common in Donegal and the other northern Irish counties. Genealogy Resources for the Surname CALLAGHAN Common Surnames of IrelandDiscover the meaning of your Irish last name, and learn where in Ireland these Irish surnames are most commonly found Callaghan  Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Callaghan  family crest or coat of arms for the Callaghan surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted. OCallaghan/Callaghan/Callahan/Keelaghan DNA ProjectIndividuals with the Callaghan surname and variations are invited to join this project dedicated to combining the results of DNA testing with genealogy research to identify various Callaghan and OCallaghan family lines. Callaghan Family Genealogy ForumSearch this popular genealogy forum for the Callaghan surname to find others who might be researching your ancestors, or post your own Callaghan query. DistantCousin.com - CALLAGHAN  Genealogy Family HistoryExplore free databases and genealogy links for the last name Callaghan. GeneaNet - Callaghan  RecordsGeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Callaghan  surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries. The Callaghan  Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse family trees and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the last name Callaghan  from the website of Genealogy Today. Sources Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

Using the APA Template

Using the APA Template By now, we have all discovered the magic of templates. From statistical reports to business letters, templates make our lives easier by formatting our text correctly for us. Now you can format your APA style papers correctly with the APA template. Using a simple template, you can first choose which type of paper or report you intend to generate. Many APA template packages come with a variety of options to help you choose the APA style thats right for you. Whether youre writing an academic paper or a more stylized report, you can be sure the conform to APA guidelines. The program will then most likely ask you for some information on the paper you are preparing. By entering information into fields, you can customize your paper to your exact needs. You can title the paper, and make further specifications on your report. Other APA Software There is more to APA software than mere templates, however. You can also store your frequently used sources for later, easier reuse. With a few clicks of your mouse, the ease and standardization of the APA style is at your fingertips, and in your paper.

1984 Study Guide

1984 Study Guide George Orwells 1984 is such an influential novel that you neednt have read it to notice its effect. With its chilling examination of totalitarian regimes, 1984 changed the language we use to discuss those very regimes. Popular terms like Big Brother, Orwellian, or Newspeak were all originated by Orwell in 1984. The novel was Orwell’s attempt to highlight what he saw as an existential threat posed by authoritarian leaders like Joseph Stalin. It remains a vital commentary on the techniques of brutal totalitarian regimes and only becomes more prescient and applicable as technology catches up with its nightmarish vision. Fast Facts: 1984 Author: George OrwellPublisher: Secker and WarburgYear Published: 1949Genre: Science fictionType of Work: NovelOriginal Language: EnglishThemes: Totalitarianism, destruction of the self, control of informationCharacters: Winston Smith, Julia, O’Brien, Syme, Mr. CharringtonNotable Adaptations: A film adaptation released in 1984 starred John Hurt as Winston and Richard Burton, in his last role, as O’Brien.Fun Fact: Because of his socialist politics and connections to the Communist Party, Orwell himself was under government surveillance for years. Plot Summary Winston Smith lives in what is known as Airstrip One, formerly Britain, a province of a large nation-state known as Oceania. Posters everywhere declare BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU, and Thought Police could be anywhere, watching for signs of Thoughtcrime. Smith works at the Ministry of Truth changing historical texts to match the current propaganda being distributed by the government. Winston longs to rebel, but confines his rebellion to keeping a forbidden journal, which he writes in a corner of his apartment hidden from the two-way television screen on his wall. At work, Winston meets a woman named Julia and begins a forbidden love affair, meeting her in a room he rents above a shop in the midst of the non-party population, known as proles. At work, Winston suspects that his superior, a man named O’Brien, is involved with a resistance movement called The Brotherhood, led by a mysterious man named Emmanuel Goldstein. Winston’s suspicions are confirmed when O’Brien invites him and Julia to join The Brotherhood, but this turns out to be a ruse and the pair are arrested. Winston is brutally tortured. He slowly gives up all outward resistance, but preserves what he believes is an inner core of his true self symbolized by his feelings for Julia. In the end he is confronted by his worst fear, a terror of rats, and betrays Julia by begging his torturers to do it to her instead. Broken, Winston is returned to public life a true believer. Major Characters Winston Smith. A 39-year old man who works for the Ministry of Truth. Winston romanticizes the lives of the non-Party proles and indulges in daydreams in which they rise up and spark a revolution. Winston rebels in his private thoughts and in small actions that seem relatively safe, like his journal-keeping. His torture and destruction at the end of the novel is tragic because of the sheer lack of necessity; Winston was being manipulated from the very beginning and never posed any true threat. Julia. Similarly to Winston, Julia is outwardly a dutiful Party member, but inwardly seeks to rebel. Unlike Winston, Julia’s motivations for rebellion stem from her own desires; she wishes to pursue pleasure and leisure. O’Brien. Literally everything the reader is told about O’Brien in the first half of the story is revealed to be untrue. He is Winston’s superior at the Ministry of Truth, but he is also a member of the Thought Police. O’Brien therefore represents the Party perfectly: He is changeable as needed, weaponizes information or the lack of it, and ultimately serves solely to perpetuate power and snuff out resistance of any kind. Syme. A colleague of Winston’s, working on a Newspeak dictionary. Winston perceives Syme’s intelligence and predicts that he will disappear as a result of it, a prediction that quickly comes true. Mr. Charrington. A kindly old man who helps Winston rebel, and is later revealed as a member of the Thought Police. Major Themes Totalitarianism. Orwell argues that in a one-party political state where all other parties are outlawed, perpetuation of power becomes the sole purpose of the State. Towards this end, a totalitarian state will restrict freedom increasingly until the only freedom that remains is freedom of private thought- and the State will then attempt to restrict this as well. Control of Information. Orwell argues in the novel that the lack of access to information and the corruption of information makes meaningful resistance to the Party impossible. Orwell foresaw the rise of fake news decades before it was named. Destruction of the Self. The ultimate goal of all totalitarian regimes in Orwell’s opinion. Only by replacing individual desires with a template created by the State can true control be asserted. Literary Style Orwell writes in plain, largely unadorned language and a neutral tone, which evokes the crushing despair and dullness of Winston’s existence. He also ties the point of view tightly to Winston, forcing the reader to accept what Winston tells them much as Winston accepts what he is told, all of which is ultimately revealed as a lie. About the Author Born in 1903 in India, George Orwell was an incredibly influential writer, best-known for his novels Animal Farm and 1984, as well as essays on various topics covering politics, history, and social justice. Many of the concepts Orwell introduced in his writing have become part of pop culture, such as the phrase Big Brother is Watching You and the use of the descriptor Orwellian to indicate an oppressive surveillance state.

Study case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Study case - Essay Example There is the well-recognized need to retain Vladimir, to get him to co-operate with colleagues and dispense with non-performers. Viewed from this perspective, the suggestion to bring in new talent and to put the non-performers on notice is a good strategy to reduce the negative effects of intergroup conflict. In other words, we are creating a situational change by this strategy. To make this strategy work, it is appropriate to involve him in the selection and the induction process for the new recruits. This would increase the acquaintance potential of the team and provide a chance for better appreciation of the team’s shared goal. This would be an apt recognition of Vladimir’s talents, send the right message to others, besides thrusting additional responsibility on him. The suggestion to retain 6 top performers at the end of a defined period of training of the 5 new recruits serves the dual objectives of being fair but firm with the entire team – new as well as the existing. There will be natural attrition which is always a possibility even without this strategy. By declaring the notice period and the final intentions openly, a healthy competition is being created that would raise the co-operation and performance levels in the team, and will One possible risk in this strategy is that Vladimir might become more arrogant and consider himself indispensible. However, since the attempt is to put together a much superior team, the disparity between him and others will reduce; further, he is being made responsible for his team’s performance or failure. These changes will mellow his behavior. This aspect can also be further strengthened by periodic counseling process which is so essential in any conflict

Individual Conflict Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Individual Conflict Assessment - Essay Example The essay "Individual Conflict Assessment" talks about the social conflict as a storm using personal example which is best described as disparate. If the interpersonal realm is like weather, the metrological forces in the atmosphere are like the behaviors people engage in to meet their needs and wants.Conflict in my family of origin is best described as disparate. It has been such that the meteorological forces of some have traditionally absorbed the sentiment of others, or that the continued momentum of some behaviors has overrun the momentum of others. Conflict in my family has often been asymmetrical. Personally, I have been feeling very stressed about conflict. I often feel that I am damned if I do and damned if I don’t. If someone takes issue with me and I do not resist, they will often press until they see what they believe to be capitulation. If someone takes issue with me and I object, they will often accuse me of being unruly or rude.Likewise, I often felt much stress ed about conflict within my family of origin. I often felt that my voice was not heard, that I was often framed, and that for me there was no real justice at home. When Mom and Dad were at work, it was survival of the fittest between the siblings present. Some days you were more fit than others, and sometimes you just didn’t have the strength to fight back. Mom and Dad rarely sided with me. I guess the stress comes from the knowledge that sometimes no one will be there to look out for you.

Healthcare finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Healthcare finance - Essay Example Once this is understood, the organization can accurately assess the profitability of each sector, clinical management, service lines or provider relationships in order to ensure growth in revenues and scalability (Glaser & Sett). Performance of each subsector can then be analyzed hence given room for improvement. To lower costs and enhance efficiency, there is need to revise networks in order to enhance coordination across health care services delivery. Accessibility of health care records to a greater amount of staff, physicians and clinicians is vital to ensure the speed of delivery and determine the individual cost of services offered. All these can be achieved through technology. Over the past, Electronic health records, revenue cycle management and costing systems have been operating individually, hence the high cost of delivering health care services. Since relevant technology started creeping in, from the integration of data storage facilities with the internet, the flow of information has been quick and accessible at numerous places at a one moment (Glaser & Sett). When health care data is recorded and coupled with time stamps, cost can be recorded instantly and bills can be calculated faster. This data is then recorded and will be accessible anytime for

Jewish Sabbath Laws and the Practice of Jesus Thesis

Jewish Sabbath Laws and the Practice of Jesus - Thesis Example Evidently, Jesus found nothing unusual about partaking in the religious and cultural practices of his community, and what made the difference was that the strict legalistic interpretation and the practice of the law was not his prime objective when adhering to the Jewish law. Referring to the views of Giorgio Jossa, Stuart argues that there existed a distinct difference in Jesus’ teaching and it was partial regarding the practice of Sabbath. The author points out that Jesus’ views were distinct and unique from those of others in terms of keeping laws (145-147). Most people consider the Sabbath as the day on which Jews refrain from all sorts of work so as to comply with God’s law. However, in real sense (though often undermined), Sabbath is a day of great joy, celebration and rest rather than a day for learning the rules and keeping them. In other words, it is a day on which the Jews can relax being with family, study, pray, and reflect. The Hebrew word  Shabbat  actually means â€Å"rest†. According to Torah, which is the main source of information on Sabbath laws, the celebration of Sabbath intends the remembrance of two important events; the creation of the world and the Israel’s liberation from Egypt. These two events indeed are the central aspects of the Jewish belief, and according to the tradition, people ought to remember those events avoiding all kinds of usual activities. Admittedly, the day is more important than a normal holiday, and hence the restrictions on activities on the Sabbath are also a bit stricter. The prohibited activities include but not limited to cooking,  washing clothes, building, mending, writing, cutting, making a fire, fishing, climbing trees. Obviously, many of the listed activities need extensive interpretation to figure out what they actually stand for or to what extent they are applicable in the present day religious practices.

Biological Science in the News #4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Biological Science in the News #4 - Assignment Example The using of non-food biomass for gasoline production is more preferable. Previous studies showed the possibility of obtaining long-chain alkanes containing 13-17 carbon atoms. The new strategy of microbial gasoline production give opportunity to get fatty acid derivatives that are shorter comparing normal intracellular fatty acid metabolites. The presented strategy introduces a novel synthetic pathway for the biosynthesis of short-chain alkanes. This can be the basis for obtaining gasoline, as well as other compounds like short-chain fatty esters and short-chain fatty alcohols. What amounts of energy are used for obtaining of 1 liter of gasoline? Was energy consumption for production of gasoline by metabolically-engineered microorganism less than energy consumption during oil refining? Gasoline production by microorganisms could be one of the possible sources of fossil fuel production. The advantage of this strategy is processing of non-food biomass. However, the amount of obtained hydrocarbons is relatively small. Further researches should be aimed on the increasing of product yield. I personally think that the presented strategy change the dependence from oil into dependence from biomass gasoline. The using of developed strategy for obtaining of other compounds is more

Comparative european politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Comparative european politics - Essay Example , influential, majoritarian leadership results in superior policy outcomes, Westminster democracies fail to surpass consensus democracies (Lijphart 2007). On a number of pointers, such as inflation, consensus democracies essentially outperform Westminster democracies; in general, they perform slightly better, which somewhat implies that consensus democracies execute no worse (Lijphart 1999). Moreover, consensus democracies have a more moderate, benevolent attributes: better environmental protection, more welfare support, more foreign assistance mission, lower imprisonment rates, and less exercise of capital punishment (Lijphart 1999). Consensus democracy has certain benefits for extremely divided states. Majoritarian democracy may be denounced for ruling out nearly half the population from the decision-making or law-making process, as it can exclude 49.9% of the population from the governmental process (Crepaz et al. 2000). In the existing literature, it is claimed that this disapproval is invalid on two situations (Lijphart 2007). First, if the current minority has an actual opportunity of becoming the future majority, then exclusion perhaps is not a critical dilemma, because each half of the nation alternates being in charge, which will have a tendency to regulate exploitation of the marginalised by the mainstream (Mair 2005). Second, if a country is adequately unvaried, then non-inclusion might not be a critical dilemma since the barred interests of the minority do not diverge much from those of the majority (Ersson & Lane 2003). Lijphart (2007) challenges these two premises by emphasising that in several coun tries, particularly in societies with deep-seated ideological, religious, linguistic, or ethnic divisions, neither situation is valid. These deep-seated cleavages can thwart crossover voting, stopping the current minority from having an actual opportunity of being a future majority (Lijphart 2007). Furthermore, there is unlikely to be a great deal of

Jewish Sabbath Laws and the Practice of Jesus Thesis

Jewish Sabbath Laws and the Practice of Jesus - Thesis Example Evidently, Jesus found nothing unusual about partaking in the religious and cultural practices of his community, and what made the difference was that the strict legalistic interpretation and the practice of the law was not his prime objective when adhering to the Jewish law. Referring to the views of Giorgio Jossa, Stuart argues that there existed a distinct difference in Jesus’ teaching and it was partial regarding the practice of Sabbath. The author points out that Jesus’ views were distinct and unique from those of others in terms of keeping laws (145-147). Most people consider the Sabbath as the day on which Jews refrain from all sorts of work so as to comply with God’s law. However, in real sense (though often undermined), Sabbath is a day of great joy, celebration and rest rather than a day for learning the rules and keeping them. In other words, it is a day on which the Jews can relax being with family, study, pray, and reflect. The Hebrew word  Shabbat  actually means â€Å"rest†. According to Torah, which is the main source of information on Sabbath laws, the celebration of Sabbath intends the remembrance of two important events; the creation of the world and the Israel’s liberation from Egypt. These two events indeed are the central aspects of the Jewish belief, and according to the tradition, people ought to remember those events avoiding all kinds of usual activities. Admittedly, the day is more important than a normal holiday, and hence the restrictions on activities on the Sabbath are also a bit stricter. The prohibited activities include but not limited to cooking,  washing clothes, building, mending, writing, cutting, making a fire, fishing, climbing trees. Obviously, many of the listed activities need extensive interpretation to figure out what they actually stand for or to what extent they are applicable in the present day religious practices.

Comparative european politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Comparative european politics - Essay Example , influential, majoritarian leadership results in superior policy outcomes, Westminster democracies fail to surpass consensus democracies (Lijphart 2007). On a number of pointers, such as inflation, consensus democracies essentially outperform Westminster democracies; in general, they perform slightly better, which somewhat implies that consensus democracies execute no worse (Lijphart 1999). Moreover, consensus democracies have a more moderate, benevolent attributes: better environmental protection, more welfare support, more foreign assistance mission, lower imprisonment rates, and less exercise of capital punishment (Lijphart 1999). Consensus democracy has certain benefits for extremely divided states. Majoritarian democracy may be denounced for ruling out nearly half the population from the decision-making or law-making process, as it can exclude 49.9% of the population from the governmental process (Crepaz et al. 2000). In the existing literature, it is claimed that this disapproval is invalid on two situations (Lijphart 2007). First, if the current minority has an actual opportunity of becoming the future majority, then exclusion perhaps is not a critical dilemma, because each half of the nation alternates being in charge, which will have a tendency to regulate exploitation of the marginalised by the mainstream (Mair 2005). Second, if a country is adequately unvaried, then non-inclusion might not be a critical dilemma since the barred interests of the minority do not diverge much from those of the majority (Ersson & Lane 2003). Lijphart (2007) challenges these two premises by emphasising that in several coun tries, particularly in societies with deep-seated ideological, religious, linguistic, or ethnic divisions, neither situation is valid. These deep-seated cleavages can thwart crossover voting, stopping the current minority from having an actual opportunity of being a future majority (Lijphart 2007). Furthermore, there is unlikely to be a great deal of

Magnificent play Essay Example for Free

Magnificent play Essay Language is extremely powerful in The Crucible. Millers words are used effectively and do not include anything unnecessary to convey the idea. For instance, She thinks to dance with me on my wifes grave. And well she might, for I thought of her softly. God help me, I lusted, and there is a promise in such sweat. But it is a whores vengeance and you must see it, I set myself entirely in your hands. This quote consists of simple speech and tells a straightforward message. Proctor knows his mistake and regrets it, but he also knows he must reveal it to the court in order to stop the trials. Another example of a powerful quote is A person is either with this court or he must be counted against it, there be no road between. This quote is very effective in a way Danforth is telling everyone their fate. He is saying those against the court are evil and will suffer the consequences for it, presumably death. he tells everyone in favour of the witch trials that they are victorious and have nothing to worry about if they carry on as they are doing. The theme of this play I believe is a very interesting one. In my opinion The Crucible is about rising over adversity, standing for the truth even to the death. there are many examples in the play to support my opinion. John in the beginning wanted to keep distant from the trials, he didnt want to have a part whether good or bad, but when Elizabeth was arrested he was forced to take part. Throughout the trial, he stood for the truth. He confessed to his affair and was forgiven for his sin. He died a hero learning what truth really meant through his sufferings and struggles. there is also a great deal of hysteria in this play. The villages people were easily manipulated by Abigails lies and came to quick poorly judged conclusions, which lead to killing a great many innocent people. Act 3 is very strong most of the main things are revealed such as the courts verdict, who is right and who is wrong, who will win and who will die. It is an extremely gripping part of the play, telling how Proctor was so close to victory (through his confession and Mary Warren) yet he still defeated by the envy of Abigail, or rather the loyalty of Elizabeth and the fearful Mary warren. He knows he will die but he also knows he has a chance of stopping this fate yet because of his decency Proctor decides he would rather face death than bring trouble upon his friends and everlasting shame upon his family. I also noticed that in act 3 the three main sides are shown clearly. The power hungry stand together, those full of jealousy, greed, hate and lust join and those who are willing to sacrifice themselves for the truth unite. The people in this play may have had different motives for accusing other people, and practically sentencing them to death, but the outcome of all accusations was more or less the same. Innocent people died and there was more than one person to lay the blame on. In almost every conflict, there is someone or some people to hold responsible. In this case, it was Abigail for her manipulative nature, the Putnams for their greed, Mary Warren for being weak-willed and Rev. Parris for craving power. It makes one wonder how such a diminutive act of young girls could lead to such destruction of a community. How could innocent people be sentenced to death simply because some girls were playing and dancing? This is the power of religion and the annihilation it can cause if people refuse to tolerate any other explanation and follow it blindly. The Crucible is a magnificent play, superbly written conveying one simple message. It is better stand for the truth and sacrifice yourself than to live with a lie. It reminds us that man is not perfect, and that we can make mistakes. However, even with these mistakes, we can cleanse ourselves and purify ourselves by making what is wrong right.

Hinduism Buddhism in India

Hinduism Buddhism in India Chapter II: Ancient India Birthplace of Hinduism Buddhism. Hinduism and Buddhism There is a nice analogy which was told to me while visiting a Thai monastery many years ago. Buddhism and Hinduism are like two siblings raised in the same household, such as a brother and sister may have a certain family resemblance. A visitor would not mistake one for the other. And just like siblings they may differ in opinion in many things even to the point of arguing. Yet they still love and respect each other. If the household of these siblings is the Ancient Indian sub-continent then that is the logical place to start. Before looking at Hinduism or Buddhism in the following chapters it is necessary to look at the Ancient Indian civilization and culture prior to any written records as both of these religions have their origins in the ancient history of the Indian sub-continent. The references used are some of the earliest written works and the study will look at these in greater detail in the chapter concerning Hinduism and its teachings. The reader should note that modern science is now re-examining many of the statements made in these earlier works due to discoveries made by modern research which has scientific facts as its proof. Ancient India Pre-History Period For this section I have chosen to follow the consensus of opinion, and for that reason, the dates given here are those found in other references. We must begin by stating that the Indian continent was first populated 250,000 years ago. When the original thesis paper was written, the first major civilization was considered to be the Harrapan civilization that occupied the Indus Valley where Baluchistan was a farming community from 3500 BCE (this may well have been pre-dated by the 9000 BCE Gulf of Cambay civilisation once more is known about it) Prehistoric India The consensus held by scholars and historians, is that ancient Indias indigenous people were a dark skinned race. There are prehistoric cave paintings and rock art, which provide the basis for these assertions. This is said to be a 40,000-year-old cave painting seen on a white silica sandstone rock shelter depicting existence of human civilization is seen in Banda district 800 kilometers (500 miles) southeast of New Delhi, India. The painting below depicts hunting by cave dwellers in the Paleolithic age. These caves were discovered recently. Notice the horse with rider. A 40,000 Year Old Cave Painting (AP Photo/Shekhar Srivastava) Origins of the Indus Valley Civilization The geography of India is one of many extremes. The land mass encompasses desert, mountains, forest, and jungle. All of these environments were susceptible to unpredictable periods of flood, drought, and monsoons. Though India contained some of the most extreme geological and climatic features, these difficult conditions were also an asset to the development of its early civilizations. The Himalayas provided a natural protective barrier from any nomadic or military invasions from the north, and other mountain ranges provided similar protection in the west and east. The account of the Indus valley and its people, (also known as the Harappa civilization), is a story of a people intricately tied to their environment. The waterways of the Indus valley provided an excellent resource for trade, commerce, and agriculture. Throughout Indias history, the rivers were crucial to the inhabitants of the region. As is found with most societies, especially non-nomadic ones, a rise in the cultivation of agrarian resources often leads to a surplus. Other factors permitting, this normally leads to an eventual population increase. As far as we can surmise, the development of civilization in the Indus valley followed this pattern ie. a static society, fertile soil , good harvest and no major wars or pestilence diminishing the populace. The diverse geography of ancient India resulted in an increase of both the quantity and the specialization of agrarian crops. Faunal remains around the era of 3000 BC shows such trends and suggests that the Indus valley civilizations were benefiting from the rich alluvial soil of the Indus River. This region produced high yields of cereal grains, cultivated crops and plant materials. By 2,700 BCE, the presence of a state level society was evident, complete with hierarchical rule and large-scale public works (irrigation, etc.). Such large-scale growth in so short a period can be attributed to two factors: The unique and rich environmental resources India provided, An organized civilization, which took direct control of its natural environment. By 3000 BCE turmeric, cardamom, pepper and mustard were harvested in India. The Harappans who occupied Harappa and Mohenjodero in the Indus Valley, were of mixed stock They had club wheat, barley, sheep and goats from the Iranian Plateau and cotton from Southern Arabia or North East Africa. Sumer had trade links with the Indus Valley via Hindu Kush by 3000 BCE. and by sea from 2500 BCE, thus linking the Harappans with both Sumerians and Egyptians, where cumin, anise and cinnamon were used for embalming by 2500 BCE We can summarize by saying the Indus valley was populated by a dark skinned race of indigenous people who had a structured hierarchical agrarian society, the floods of the local rivers providing rich alluvial topsoil, which replenished the minerals on cultivated land. The non-nomadic conditions coupled with the harvest surplus were conducive to growth population. Why then, can we assign some stories of ancient India to the period of nearly 10,000 BCE? Are there any material facts or evidence? Pre-Harappan Evidence Found in Gulf of Cambay VADODARA, INDIA, July 19, 2004: In an underwater exploration in the Gulf of Cambay, National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), scientists discovered almost 9,500-year-old bricks made of clay and straw. Archaeological experts of the MS University who, too, are involved in a part of the exploration near Surat and the coast of Gulf of Cambay, however, feel that a further insight into the size of the bricks can confirm its age and its period. The bricks, believed to be pre-Harappan, have been identified to be of the Holocene age. In the NIOT surveys in the 17 sq km area, stone artifacts like blade scrapers, perforated stones and beads were found. The bricks, according to NIOT scientists, were used for construction. It indicates that the people of that age led an advanced form of life. The artifacts found on the seabed, 20 to 40 ft below the present sea level, consisted of housing material. It is important to confirm the brick size as people of the pre-Harappan age made bricks in the ratio of 1:2:3. A confirmation on the brick size can add more credence to the discovery, says head of the archeology and ancient history department V. H. Sonawane. WARANGAL, INDIA, Feb 12, 2002 Mysterious Sunken City Found Near Surat Michael Cremo recently attended a meeting of ranking Indian governmental officials at which Murli Monohar Joshi, Minister for Science and Technology, confirmed the archeological find by an Indian oceanographic survey team. Could the recent discovery of a sunken city off the Northwest Coast of India near Surat revolutionize our concept of history? Michael A. Cremo, historian of archeology and author of Forbidden Archeology, claims that all the history textbooks would have to be rewritten if this ancient find proves to be of Vedic origin. Radiocarbon testing of a piece of wood from the underwater site yielded an age of 9,500 years, making it four thousand years older than earliest cities now recognized. According to Cremo, The ancient Sanskrit writings of India speak of cities existing on the Indian subcontinent in very primeval times. Although historians tend to dismiss such accounts as mythological, these new discoveries promise to confirm the old literary accounts. Michael Cremo is acknowledged as a leading authority on anomalous archeological evidence. Asserting the recent find may be just the first step, he says, It is likely that even older discoveries will follow. The cultural identity of the people who inhabited the underwater city is as yet unknown. Most historians believe that Sanskrit-speaking people entered the Indian subcontinent about 3,500 years ago, from Central Asia. Other historians accept India itself as the original home of Sanskrit-speaking people, whose lifestyle is termed Vedic culture because their lives were regulated by a body of literature called the Vedas. A City Dating Back to 7500 BCE As was announced on January 16, 2002 from New Delhi, Indian scientists have made an archaeological discovery that dates back to 7500 BCE. This suggests, as a top government official said, that the worlds oldest cities came up about 4,000 years earlier than is currently believed. The scientists found pieces of wood, remains of pots, fossil bones and what appeared like construction material just off the coast of Surat. Science and Technology Minister Murli Manohar Joshi told a news conference. He said, Some of these artifacts recovered by the National Institute of Ocean Technology from the site, such as the log of wood date back to 7500 BCE, which is indicative of a very ancient culture in the present Gulf of Cambay, that got submerged subsequently. Current belief is that the first cities appeared around 3500 BCE in the valley of Sumer, where Iraq now stands. A statement issued by the government said. We can safely say from the antiquities and the acoustic images of the geometric structures that there was human activity in the region more than 9,500 years ago (7500 BCE), said S.N. Rajguru, an independent archaeologist. Malleswaram boasts of many temples, but none is so shrouded in controversy and mystery as this one is. The ancient Nandeeshwara temple at Malleswaram 17th cross was discovered only three years ago, but it has stood for 7,000 years on that spot. Being buried over the years has not dim inished its aura at all. It still draws huge crowds all day. According to residents living nearby, the temple was completely buried and the land above it was a flat stretch. Three years ago, a politician tried to sell this plot. But people objected on the grounds that the land should first be dug through to see if they could find something, says the priest, Ravi Shankar Bhatt. Therefore, when they started digging up the land, they found buried underneath, this temple. It was in perfect condition, preserved by the thick layers of soil. This underground temple was enclosed within a stone cut courtyard supported by ancient stone pillars. At the far end of the courtyard, a Nandi was carved out of a black stone with eyes painted in gold. From its mouth a clear stream of water flowed directly on to a Shivalinga made out of the same black stone at a lower level. There were steps that led to a small pool in the centre of the courtyard where the water flowed and collected. The pools centre had a 15 feet deep whirlpool. Everything remains the same today. Nobody knows where the water comes from and how it passes from the mouth of the Nandi idol on to the Shivalinga. Nobody knows how the whirlpool came into being. The source of water, the sculptor, even the time when it was built remains a mystery. There has been no scientific explanation for the source of water to date, says resident Shivalingaiah. Some say it was built by Shivaji Maharaj. Some say its older. However, of one thing we were sure, the temple has remained untouched over the years. We found it exactly as it might have been before it was covered by soil, he adds. On Shivaratri day, overwhelming crowds gather at this temple. Some perform the milk puja. Others just come to marvel at a temple. A Malleswaram committee has been specifically created to look after the temple. Committee president C Chandrashekhar functions along with a 11-member committee. We are slowly introducing improvements in the temple to keep it in good shape. A lot of people come even from other parts of Bangalore, he says. The committees next step is to build a gopuram in the temple premises. Mehgarh 6,000 BCE Mehgarh is located 125 miles west of the Indus valley, and provides early evidence of village dwelling level within the Indus Valley. The initial site is quite small and exhibits evidence of crop farming, with produce such as Asiatic wheat. The site also shows use of domestic goats and extensive trade with the west. Traded goods included turquoise, copper, and cotton from as far away as Arabia. By 5,000 BCE the dwellings of the Mehgarh went from simple semi-permanent housing to mud brick, and then large permanent housing. The economy was largely dependent upon trade. Such trends, specifically emphasizing trade, continued well into 4,000 BCE when the culture clearly identified as Harappan became evident. 5000 Year Old Harappan Township Found in Haryana Evidence of a township of the 5,000-year-old Indus Valley Civilisation (Harappan Era) has been found during excavations near Bhirdana village in Fatehabad district of Haryana . The excavations are being carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).The ASI had earlier discovered the presence of same townships of the Indus Valley Civilisation at two other places, Kunal and Banawali, in the district. The evidence found at Bhirdana includes many structures made of mud bricks, peculiar of the Harappan era; a well, a fortification wall, pottery and other antiquities. Mr L.S. Rao, Superintending Archaeologist of the ASI, who is leading the team of excavators here, informed that the team, comprising a Deputy Superintending Archaeologist, three Assistant Archaeologists and other officials like photographers, draftsmen, artists, and surveyors, was working on the excavation site spread across 62,500 square meters and situated on a mound. Fifteen students of Institute of Archaeology, New Delhi, have also been assisting the team. The excavations, being carried out under the `Saraswati Heritage Project of the Union Government, were part of a series of such excavations being made to unearth the old civilisations on the bank of the ancient Saraswati river. The Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Haryana, had protected the area of the present excavations. Mr Rao said the area where the excavations were being carried out was the bank of the Saraswati. The whole riverbed had been converted in to agricultural lands with the passage of time, he added that the ASI based its findings on the antiquities collected during the excavations on the surface of the mound. Pottery, among the antiquities, is the main criteria for ascertaining the civilization. The excavators have also discovered a 2.4-metre-wide wall considered to be the fortification wall of the township on the excavation site. Ms Ankum, from Nagaland, a student of the Institute of Archaeology, who was manning the fortification area, said a clinching evidence of the township was that the earth outside the wall comprised of virgin soil while the one inside the fortification wall had all the evidence of structures. Mr Prabhash Sahu, Assistant Superintending Archaeologist, explained that it was a horizontal excavation and the whole mound had been divided into four parts for convenience. Mr Rao said the residents of the area were cooperative and were showing keen interest in the excavations. First Harappan Burial site Found in Sinauli, Uttar Pradesh SINAULI, June 28, 2006: Imagine for a moment that youre a farmer, leveling your field, when suddenly your plough hits something hard. You wipe away the dust and discover its a bone, hardened over time. You dig some more and discover the remnants of pottery next to an ancient human skeleton.This is what happened to Sattar Ali while working in the sugarcane fields in Sinauli village near Baghpat in western UP, some 75 km from Delhi. Although he didnt know it at that time, Ali had chanced upon an ancient burial ground of the late Harappan period, believed to be more than 4,000 years old. Matters would have rested there had not a local youth, Tahir Hussain, informed the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) about it. Since August last year, ASIs excavations have been going on in full swing. Dharamvir Sharma, superintending archaeologist, ASI, says, The findings here are very important and have the potential to change the way we look at the history of Asia. Sinaulis find is unique because this is the first Harappan burial site to be found in UP. More importantly, its the first Harappan site where two antenna swords were found buried next to the skeletons. These were of the copper hoard culture, which has been a cause of debate among historians. These findings might just prove that the copper hoard was associated with the late Harappans, says Sharma. The excavations have already yielded a rich haul. Almost 126 skeletons have been recovered, which indicates that the mound was a fairly large habitation. While some are broken, others are remarkably well preserved. One of the first skeletons to be discovered was found wearing copper bracelets on both hands. Some distance away, another was found buried along with an animal, presumably intended to be a sacrificial offering. Other finds include bead necklaces, copper spearheads, gold ornaments, and a few anthropomorphic figures which were typical of Harappan settlements. While these are all relative evidence of the late Harappan period, believed to be around 2000 BC, carbon dating of the skeletons would put a firm date on it. Sinaulis findings might also prove that the Harappans were a part of the Vedic culture and followed prescribed Vedic practices. Sharma says, All the skeletons have been found lying in the North-South direction, as prescribed by the Rig Veda. Near their heads have been found pots, which probably contained grains, ghee, curd and somarasa as an offering to Yama, the God of Death. This was in accordance with ancient Vedic burial practices, mentioned in the Shatpath Brahman. However, not all historians agree with this view. They feel it is too early to jump to conclusions without carbon dating being done. The Early Harappan 4,000 BC to 3,000 BC From the humble, but rapidly advancing beginning of the Mehgarh, came the eventual arrival of the early Harappan. The early Harappan evidenced very densely packed villages and village centers, all with extensive irrigation systems, and much the same subsistence pattern as the Mehgarh. The early Harappan people planted a wide variety of crops, including barley, and wheat, and did so according to the predictable cycles of the Indus River. The farmers of the Indus would plant their crops as the floods receded between June and September, and by early Spring harvested them. The result of the Harappan civilizations emphasis on agriculture and irrigation lead to a plethora of irrigation systems around which human settlements were built. The settlements along the river were susceptible to periods of violent flooding. In such cases, stone walls were erected as flood barriers. Ironically, these flood barriers eventually became the city walls of some settlements. The Harappan 2,500 BC. to 2,050 BC From the Early Harappan arose such settlements as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, as well as numerous other settlements which spanned roughly 1,000,000 miles of the Indus Valley. The culture of the classical Harappan era surrounded the rivers of the Indus valley and was greatly dependent upon the valley and trade for its subsistence. Indicative of all Harappan sites are the fire mud brick houses and the net-like city plans that took generations to evolve.3 The Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the worlds first great urban civilizations. It flourished in the vast river plains and adjacent regions in what are now Pakistan and western India. The earliest cities became integrated into an extensive urban culture around 4,600 years ago and continued to dominate the region for at least 700 years, from 2600 to 1900 BCE It was only in the 1920s that the buried cities and villages of the Indus valley were recognized by archaeologists as representing an undiscovered civilization. Modern satellite images and field surveys indicate that the once mighty Saraswati River appears to have changed its course several times and became completely dry in approximately 1900 BCE. Some experts believe that the phonetically close affinities between the Deva Bhasha Sanskrit and several European languages may be due to natural calamities that may have caused the Indus Valley people to migrate out of India. The Mohehjodaro in Sind was discovered in 1922 and Harappa in West Punjab a few years later. Although the two sites were about 600 km apart, these two civilisations covering an area in excess of a million square kilometers, were considered as one Indus civilisation in view of the similarity of the objects discovered in the ruins. A comparison of the archaeological remains of Indus Valley with the Vedic civilisation can be made from the Vedic hymns. These reveal almost one hundred per cent similarities between the two civilisations in food habits, animal rearing, cotton weaving, personal cleanliness, use of metals for weapons and ornaments, method of worship, practice of Yoga, cremation of dead, belief in immortality of soul and after-life etc. Indian Trade and Maritime Sea Routes India, situated at the central point of the ocean that washes its coasts on three sides, appeared destined for a maritime future. The majority of Western scholars have underestimated Indias achievement with regard to commerce, shipbuilding, navigation, and sea travel. The Indian world stretched far beyond its borders, and it must be noted, that India had no policy of violent conquest to spread her influence. The antiquity of these voyages are most remarkable; regarding Indias Western trade routes:- there is archaeological and historical evidence to show that as early as the 8th century BCE, there existed regular trade relations, both by land and sea, between India on the one hand and Mesopotamia, Arabia, Phoenicia, and Egypt on the other. The Eastern routes, which are the most pertinent to this study, can be traced back to the 7th century BCE using Chinese literary texts, which refer to their maritime trade activity. The fact that this information is recorded and documented by non-Indian races, having nothing to gain by stating these ancient links, must lend substantial weight to the claims of Indian scholars and historians. The evidence may support many claims made by Hindus about the advanced culture that existed in Indias ancient past. However, it is inconceivable that the Chinese, Egyptians, Romans etc wrote these articles to enhance or raise the status of what would have been a foreign power and alien religion. We can confidently conclude that there was a time in the ancient past, when Indians were masters of the sea borne trade of Europe, Asia, and Africa. They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried overland or sea. Sanskrit literature is replete with tales of merchants, traders, and men engrossed in commercial pursuits. Manu Smriti, the oldest law book in the world, lays down laws to govern commercial disputes having references to sea borne traffic as well as inland and overland commerce. Lord Elphinstone has written, The Hindus navigated the ocean as early as the age of Manus Code because we read in it of men well acquainted with sea voyages. Noted historian, R. C. Majumdar, observed: The Indian colonies in the Far East must ever remain as the high watermark of maritime and colonial enterprise of the ancient Indians. It has been proved beyond doubt that the Indians of the past were not, stay-at-home people, but w ent out of their country for exploration, trade, and colonization. For some of the oldest information we have to look in the ancient Rig Veda. One passage speaks of merchants going everywhere and frequenting every part of the sea for gain (L. 56.2) and another (I. 25.7) represents Varuna having a full knowledge of the sea routes. The Ramayana (translation in the English language by T.H. Griffith), refers to the Yavan Dvipa and Suvarna Dvipa (Java and Sumatra)* and to the Lohta Sayara or the Red Sea. The drama Sakuntala Ratnavali of King Harsha Sisupalvadha of Magha, relates stories of sea voyages of merchants and others. Ancient Indian books the Kathasagara, the Jatakas and others refer to these wondrous regions that set the imagination of civilized Indians on fire, to Suvarnabhumi, the fabulous Land of Gold. Overall, the Indian influence on Southeast Asia proceeded peacefully. Local chiefs and petty chieftains were admitted into the caste structure as Ksatriyas through a ritual known as vratyastoma, performed by an Indian Brahmin. The Brahmin pri ests would, no doubt, have found it a relatively simple matter in persuading a local ruler to elevate his status and standing among his people. Professor A. L. Basham, who reduced India along with her culture to a wonder-land in his book Wonder That Was India has observed that: certain over-enthusiastic Indian scholars have perhaps made too much of the achievements of ancient Indian seafarers, which cannot compare with those of the Vikings or of some others early maritime peoples. Is this comment a fair assessment of the facts? What was the Viking achievement? It is clear that the Vikings, during the period 800 to 1200 BCE, migrated to all the corners of Europe. They did not do this peacefully, and had no lasting cultural influence on the people they came into contact with. On the contrary, they lost their identity when settling under the influence of the superior cultures of the lands they visited.In comparison to this, both from the qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, what was the Indian achievement? With regard to their contact with Southeast Asia Professor D. P. Singhal remarks, Indians came into contact with the countries of Southeast Asia principally for commercial reasons. Wherever they settled, they introduced their culture and civilization. In turn, they were influenced by the indigenous culture, laying thus the foundation of a new culture in the region. Indian cultural contact with Southeast Asia covers a period of more than thirteen hundred years, and segments of Indian culture even reached eastwards of this region. 1 Sir Aurel Stein (1862-1943) a Hungarian and author of several books including Ra`jatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kashmir and Innermost Asia.The vast extent of Indian cultural influences, from Central Asia in the North to tropical Indonesia in the South, and from the Borderlands of Persia to China and Japan, has shown that ancient India was a radiating center of a civilization, which by its religious thought, its art and literature, was destined to leave its deep mark on the races wholly diverse and scattered over the greater part of Asia. 2 Indians of old were keenly alive to the expansion of dominions, acquisition of wealth, and the development of trade, industry, and commerce. The material prosperity they gained in these various ways was reflected in the luxury and elegance that characterized their society. Some find allusion in the Old Testament, to Indian trade with the Syrian coast as far back as 1400 BCE, and we have noted the archaeological evidence shows Chinese links from the 8th century BCE. Recent excavations in the Philippines, Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia confirm early and extensive trade, which continued down to the historical period. This naval network enabled Indians to explore and colonize the islands in the Indian Archipelago. Shortly after, there grew up a regular traffic between India and China, both by land and sea. India also came in close contact with the Hellenic world. We learn from ancient authority that in the processions of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-246 B.C.) were to be found Indian women, Indian hunting dogs, Indian cows, also Indian spices carried on camels, and that the vessels of the ruler of Egypt had a saloon lined with Indian precious stones. Everything indicates that there was a large volume of sea-trade between India and the western countries as far as African coast. From the coast the goods were carried by land to the Nile, and then down the river to Alexandria which was a great emporium in those days. There was a mercantile colony of Indians in an island off the African coast in the first century CE. The adventurous spirit of the Indians carried them even as far as the North Sea, while their caravans traveled from one end of Asia to the other.3 On journeys by sea, there were jalaniryamakas guides who could predict the behavior of waters. In the sea-coast town of Shurparak, there was an arrangement to train persons with the help of the Niryamak Sutras. According to these verses, those persons who traveled together in a ship were called sanyatrika. The Greater India with Islands Comparing the achievements of the Indians and the Chinese in Southeast Asia, T. V. Mahalingam observes. Though China also exercised a considerable influence over countries of Southeast Asia, Indian influence was more effective and durable for the Chinese always remained colonies of foreigners with little inclination to mix with the local population and in contrast to what the Hindus achieved, there is nowhere any trace of the taking-over of Chinese culture by the children of the soil. His views have been upheld by John F. Cady who concluded that: Indian cultural patterns in particular became widely disseminated during the early centuries CE, while Chinese influence, although culturally less contagious, virtually dominated from Sung times (960 and later) the trade and politics of the eastern seas.4 Amaury de Riencourt wrote: The brightest sun shining over Southeast Asia in the first centuries CE was Indian Civilization. Waves of Indian colonists, traders, soldiers, Brahmins and Buddhist beat upon one Southeast shore after another. Great military power based on superior technical knowledge, flourishing trade fostered by the remarkable increase in maritime exchanges between India and these areas, the vast cultural superiority of the Indians, everything conspired to heighten the impact of the Indian Civilization on the Southeast Asian. Passenger ships plied regularly between the Ganges, Ceylon and Malaya in the middle of the first millennium CE. Indian settlers from Gujarat and Kalinga colonized Java, for instance, while others set out for Burma, Siam and Cambodia. Old Indian books the Kathasagara, the Jatakas and others refer to these wondorous regions that set the imagination of civilized Indians on fire, to Suvarnabhumi, the fabulous Land of Gold. On the whole, the Indianization of Southeast Asia proceeded peacefully. Local chiefs and petty chieftains were admitted into the caste structure as Ksatriyas through a ritual known as vratyastoma, performed by an Indian Brahmin. All over Southeast Asia tremendous ruins are strewn, testifying to the immense influence of Indian Civilization. 5 Ancient Indians knew Atlantic Ocean Buddhist Jataka stories wrote about large Indian ships carrying seven hundred people. In the Artha Sastra, Kautilya wrote about the Board of Shipping and the Commissioner of Ports who supervised sea traffic. The Harivamsa informs us that the first geographical survey of the world was performed during the period of Vaivasvata. The towns, villages and demarcation of agricultural land of that time were charted on maps. Brahmanda Purana provides the best and most detailed description of a world map drawn on a flat surface using an accurate scale. Padma Purana says that world maps were prepared and maintained in book fo